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Philodemus’ Theological Papyri

A new in-depth study of the theological works by Philodemus.

At the beginning of the Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus states: “First of all, consider the divinity as an indestructible and blessed being …” (§123 πρῶτον μὲν τὸν θεὸν ζῷον ἄφθαρτον καὶ μακάριον νομίζων). It is no coincidence that this notion is established at the very opening of a letter devoted to ethics. For the Epicureans, recognizing that the gods exist, yet live independently of human beings and do not harm them, was a crucial step toward the attainment of happiness. From the catalogue of Epicurus’ works transmitted by Diogenes Laertius (X 27), we learn that the founder of the School composed at least three theological treatises – On the Gods (Περὶ θεῶν), On Piety (Περὶ ὁσιότητος), and On Fate (Περὶ εἱμαρμένης) – all of which are now lost.

Epicurean thought on the divine is therefore known to us almost entirely through the writings of Philodemus of Gadara (1st century BCE), preserved in the papyrus scrolls from the Library of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. A prolific and polemical author, Philodemus vigorously defends the original doctrine of his Master against the attacks of rival philosophical schools. Although fragmentary, his works constitute extremely rare direct sources from within the Epicurean School itself for reconstructing Epicurean theology; at the same time, his criticisms of opponents make them valuable testimonies to aspects of the theological doctrines of other philosophical schools, frequently cited in a polemical context.

Despite their importance for the study of Epicurean theology, the theological corpus of Philodemus still lacks a comprehensive and up-to-date study. With the exception of two volumes recently published in the series La Scuola di Epicuro – Filodemo. Opera incerta sugli dèi, edited by Marzia D’Angelo (Naples 2022) and Filodemo. [La provvidenza], edited by Claudio Vergara (Naples 2025) – several major works remain accessible only in editions over a century old, often not based on direct examination of the original papyri.

The first line of research of the LACUNA project aims to resume the study of theological works that are currently available only in partial or outdated editions, or that remain entirely unpublished:

On gods 1

(PHerc. 26)

IN PROGRESS

On the lifestyle of the gods

(PHerc. 152/157)

IN PROGRESS

On piety

(selected scorze)

IN PROGRESS

Theological work?

(PHerc. 168)

IN PROGRESS

Theological work?

(PHerc. 1049)

PENDING

On gods book 1
(PHerc. 26)

Assigned to: Marzia D’Angelo

Subject: How can we free ourselves from the fear of the gods and live without anxiety? When we face the fear of death and gods, is the terror felt by humans greater than that felt by animals, which lack reason? Is the fear of the gods greater than the fear of death? This well-preserved book does not describe the nature of the Epicurean gods, but rather teaches us how to live happily without fearing them.

Last edition: Diels 1916, not based on an autopsy of the papyrus.

On the lifestyle of the gods
(PHerc. 152/157)

Assigned to: Holger Essler (Advisory Board)

Subject: how exactly do the gods live? Do the gods eat? Do they sleep? Do they feel anger and rage? PHerc. 152/157 serves as a paramount source for understanding the Epicurean doctrine of the gods as anthropomorphic beings.

Last edition: Diels 1917, not based on an autopsy of the papyrus + partial editions by Essler

On piety
(selected scorze)

Assigned to: Raffaele Bernini

Subject: This was a very long scroll, currently fragmented into more than 20 papyri scattered through the collection and stored under different inventory numbers. In our project, we will focus only on a selection of the so-called scorze, i.e. the external portions of the scroll that were physically removed during the 18th century. The content of the selected scorze covers subjects like cosmogonies, divine births, and the wrath of the gods.

Theological work?
(PHerc. 168)

Assigned to: Alessia Lavorante

Subject: PHerc. 168 preserves, in a poor state of conservation, an opus incertum by Philodemus (ὑπομνηματικόν), the content of which has been the subject of conflicting hypotheses – none of them based on a comprehensive edition of the surviving fragments. Following Bignone (1912, 1919), the work was long regarded as theological in nature; subsequent studies, however, have proposed an ethical-gnoseological content, on the basis of Epicurean terminology related to knowledge, memory, and perception (Salvadori Baldascino 1992). A complete study of the text, made possible by the virtual reconstruction of the fragments that transmit it, will allow its nature to be clarified.

Last edition: Salvadori Baldascino 1992 (selected readings)

Theological work?
(PHerc. 1049)

Assigned to: papyrologist to be hired

Subject: Although it has come down to us in numerous fragments, in this scroll – which is in very poor condition – only a few passages of text are legible in their entirety. On the basis of very few words, the hypothesis of the work’s theological content was put forward over a century ago (Crönert 1906), which a comprehensive study of the surviving fragments will now make it possible to confirm or refute.

Last edition: Crönert 1906 (scattered readings)

Bibliography

Bignone 1912 = E. Bignone, Epicurea (Pap. Herc. ined. 168 col. 1; Schol in Epic. ad Her. 42 sg.), «AAT» 47/1912, 670-690.
Bignone 1919 = E. Bignone, Philodemea (Pap. Herc. ined. 168 col. 1, 2; Pap. Herc. 57 col. 1, 2, 4, 5, 9), «RFIC» 47/1919, 414-422.
Crönert 1906 = W. Crönert, Kolotes und Menedemos, Leipzig 1906.
Diels 1916 = H. Diels, Philodemos über die Götter Erstes Buch, «APAW» 1915, phil.-hist. Klasse, Nr. 7 (Berlin 1916).
Diels 1917 = H. Diels, Philodemos über die Götter. Drittes Buch (Berlin 1917), «APAW» 1916, phil. hist. Klasse, Nr. 4 (Text) und 6 (Erläuterung) Ndr. (Leipzig 1970).
Essler 2005 = H. Essler, Un nuovo frammento di Ermarco nel PHerc. 152/157 (Filodemo, De dis, Libro III), «CErc» 35/2005, 53-59.
Essler 2009 = H. Essler, Falsche Götter bei Philodem (Di III Kol. 8,5 – Kol. 10,6), «CErc» 39/2009, 161-205.
Essler 2011a = H. Essler, Glückselig und unsterblich: epikureische Theologie bei Cicero und Philodem: mit einer Edition von PHerc. 152/157, Kol. 8-10 (Basel 2011).
Essler 2011b = H. Essler, Eine Auslegung Epikurs theologischer Schriften, «CErc» 41/2011, 13-25.
Essler 2012 = H. Essler, Die Gotterbewegung (Phld., Di III, Kol. 10,6 – Kol. 11,7), «CErc» 42/2012, 259-275.
Essler 2013 = H. Essler, Freundschaft der Götter und Toten. Mit einer Neuedition von Phld., Di III, Frg. 87 und 83, «CErc» 43/2013, 95-111.
Essler 2014 = H. Essler, Zum Fragment aus Chrysipps De divinatione (PHerc. 152/157, Kol. 7, 26 – Kol. 8, 5), «CErc» 44/2014, 117-128.
Essler 2016 = H. Essler, Ehebruch bei Göttern und Steinen (PHerc. 152/157, Frg. 42, 25 – Frg. 78, 9), «CErc» 46/2016, 101-108.
Salvadori Baldascino 1992 = L. Salvadori Baldascino, Per una edizione di PHerc. 168, in Proceedings of the XIXth International Congress of Papyrology. Cairo 2-9 September 1989 (Cairo 1992), 268-278.